Category: History Topics

Theodore Roosevelt (October 27, 1858- January 6, 1919) was the 26th president of America. He was the engineer of a modern era in American politics. On June 26th 2006 Roosevelt, adoringly called Teddy appeared in the cover of Time magazine with the lead story “The Making of Modern America-20th Century Express”: which says “at home and abroad Theodore Roosevelt was the locomotive President, the man who drew his flourishing nation into future.”

The Life Of The Mandarin

Theodore was the Assistant Secretary of the US Navy. In 1898 he organized the war with Spain and helped to command the first US Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, “The Rough Riders”. Upon Theodore’s return in New York, he was elected the Republican Governor in 1898.

Roosevelt was the first person to grasp the significance of Panama Canal. He bargained for the control of its construction for the US in 1904. The canal was completed in 1914 after Theodore left office.

Roosevelt, The Progressive Leader  

Theodore was a progressive reformer who wanted to bring the Republican Party within the realm of Progressive Party. But his attack on Judiciary created a rift between him and his friend and successor William Taft. A new political party, The United States Progressive Party was formed out of the split in the Republican Party in 1912 Presidential Election. Theodore Roosevelt lost his Republican nomination to Taft and pulled out to form this new Progressive party nicknamed Bull Moose Party.

Majority of Republican Congressmen, Governors and leaders refused to join the new party even if a large percentage formerly supported Roosevelt. Though many independent reformers joined Bull Moose. The party backed many sympathetic Republican and Democratic candidates during federal and state elections from 1912 to 1916.

Out of the 15 most prominent progressive Republicans, 5 supported Theodore and 3 backed Woodrow Wilson. Many political supporters of Roosevelt endorsed Taft. Even Longworth, son in law of Roosevelt supported Taft. Many people deemed it safe and sound to be with Woodrow Wilson and some were suspicious about Theodore’s progressive ideas.

The rise of the Democratic Party posed new problems. The Bulls Moose had dreamt of victory of Theodore by pulling out progressive elements from the Republican and the Democratic. But the Democrats nominated their most efficient and outstanding leader Woodrow Wilson.

Scarcity of funds was another problem. The businesses that funded Republicans distrusted Roosevelt because with his ‘Trust Buster’ image he had broken large businesses. So, the Bull Mooser had to spend a lot on publicity.

Roosevelt defeated Taft in the Popular vote and by 88-8 margin in the Electoral vote. But Woodrow Wilson won due to the crack in the Republican. With this mishap the fantasy to win the White House was ripped apart.

After poor performances in 1912 and a pathetic showdown in 1914, The Bulls Moose disintegrated.

The Progressive Manifesto

The Progressive party voiced for easy amendment of the US Constitution, women suffrage, social welfare legislation of women and children, recall of Judicial decisions, compensation for workers, limited injunction in strikes, revival of banking to promote an elastic currency, farm relief, Health insurance in Industrial arena, new inheritance and income tax structure, improvisation of in-land waterways and limited naval armaments.

Roosevelt propounded ‘New Nationalism’, which speaks of a sturdy government to protect the interest of middle and worker classes as opposed to Woodrow Wilson’s individualistic ‘New Freedom’.

The Other Facet Of Roosevelt

Roosevelt believed in equality and in his ‘Square Deal’ he determined to protect the rights of middle classes and working classes. He promulgated the conservation of natural resources. As a professional historian his biography boasts of a bright academic career strewn with many books. He was the first American who was awarded the Noble Prize in 1906. He own the Peace Prize for his contribution in the peace process between Japan and Russia.

Thus, stands the tall figure of Theodore Roosevelt pointing towards a future nation he dreamed of. As historian Thomas Bailey says, “Roosevelt was a great personality, a great activist, a great preacher of moralities, a great controversialist, a great showman.”

The Christian Church in close association with the Bishop of Rome is the Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church for that matter. Its origin can be traced back to the Christian community brought by Jesus. It goes without saying that its traditions were set up by the Twelve Apostles. When it comes to Catholic Church, it is not only the biggest church but also the biggest organized body of any world religion.

Saint Peter, the man who stood at the helm of the Apostles is considered as the first Pope. History tells that after an intense struggle, Christianity was finally legalized in the fourth century. And not before 27 February 380, Catholic Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire, thanks to Emperor Theodosius. In the history of Christianity, the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century is worth a mention. They not only disclaimed the supremacy of the Pope but also other Catholic doctrines and practices over and above the prevalent abuses in those times.

You will find detailed account of Catholic beliefs in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Furthermore, the Compendium of the Catechism, is the concise version and comes in question and answer form. Here, you will find seven sacraments, and it is the Eucharist that is of great importance in gaining salvation.

The Sacred Scriptures i.e. the Bible and Sacred Tradition are the foremost sources for the teachings of the Catholic Church. The teachings of Sacred Tradition were originally derived from the Apostles by way of oral practice. In fact, a lot of writings of the early Church Fathers are a mere reflection of the teachings of Sacred Tradition.

Putting light on the social teachings of the Catholic Churches, it is found that the teachings emphasize on forgiveness, doing good for other people, principally the needy ones and the holiness of life. Catholics are found to be peace lovers. Capital punishment is partially condemned by the Church, as John Paul II addressed that execution is only apposite “in cases of total necessity.

Catholicism rests on the belief that there is only one God –the one and only, the eternal, omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient. God can be identified in his works as the origin and end of all created things –as preached by the Church in the First Vatican Council. ‘He, the almighty’ has also chosen to reveal himself as found in the Letter to the Hebrews 1:1-2. It is also believed that God exists in three divine persons, who are distinguished by way of their relations to one another –the father’s relation to the son, the son’s relation to the father and both of their relations to the Holy Spirit represent the single God as a Trinity.

God the Son, the Divine Logos, the second of the three Persons of God came in the flesh of Jesus Christ, a human being, born of the Virgin Mary according to the Catholics. Jesus Christ spread the message of love, forgiveness and above all revealed God as Love. And subsequent to Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection, his followers especially the Apostles left no stone unturned to disseminate their faith far and wide.

Roman Catholic Church has made its presence felt by touching the lives of millions.

American revolution is a historical landmark, which has witnessed several political, social and economical upheavals. Humans generally revolt for drastic transformation and this revolution of the Americans is no exception. The American revolution sparked off in the first half of the 18th century and thus a nation was created. Yes, it was the United States of America, which staged itself putting an end to the British Rule of the thirteen colonies. However, a greater part of the revolution owes to the French Government for essential naval and military support.

History says that this revolution involved new republican ideas and a gradual expansion of democracy. Such introductions caused a commotion in the conventional social chain of command. From here, the ethics of American political values took shape to form a greater part of the American society. 

Causes of the revolution  

The revolution originated in the year 1763 when France was defeated in the hands of the British in the French and Indian war. Thus, the colonies from France no longer had to suffer from prolonged military threats. The taxes imposed by the British Government were considered illegal by most of the colonists after their protest in Boston. The British sent troops to fight with the trained American militiamen in the year 1775. It was the year 1776 when the agitation reached its climax with the signing of the Declaration of Independence. History says that the revolution ended with the treaty of Paris in 1783 when the United States came to be recognized as an independent nation.

In the year, 1763 Great Britain tightened its grip on the continent of North America. Apart from the thirteen colonies, sixteen other small colonies came under the direct rule of the royal governors. Now the British government decided to levy tax on its North American possessions. This, the government did without consulting the colonies. This offended the Americans and thus their grievances were set on fire.

In the year 1764 the British Parliament introduced the Sugar and the Currency Act thus further kindling the fire of hatred in the hearts of the million colonists. The Americans started protesting by refusing to make use of British goods. Their only slogan was “no taxation without representation”. The Americans were of the opinion that only the colonial assemblies and not the British Parliament can impose taxes upon them.
 
The patriot groups of America too had a great role to play in this revolution. They burnt a British warship as a protest against unfair trade regulations. In 1772, patriots of the thirteen colonies were invited for forming a rebel government to teach the British a lesson in its righteous sense.

Finally, with the Boston Tea Party the fuel was added to the fire. In 1773, the British Parliament introduced a “Tea Act” which enabled the British East India Company sell tea without colonial tax. This led to an undercutting of the prices of the colonial merchants. This time the Americans were terribly dissatisfied due to a monopoly again without consultation. It was 16 December 1773 when the American patriots (Sons of Liberty) dressed as Indians dumped the entire tea into the Boston harbor. To bring the situation under control the British sent soldiers to Boston, which led to further commotion.  

Events followed one after the other with absolute participation from loyalists, patriots and efficient soldiers. This led to wars between America and Britain deteriorating the international political scene to a great extent. Finally, the United States was formed putting an end to American Revolution – peace prevailed after long years of trouble and turmoil.

Medieval history roughly spans the era from 400-1500 AD in Europe. Though it is most commonly divided into the Early, High and the Late Middle Ages, there are many controversies about the exact starting and ending of this epoch.   

Until the Renaissance, European history was generally categorized into six eras in conformity with the Biblical six days of creation. In the early Renaissance period, historians marked two historical epochs of the Ancient and Dark Ages.

In the beginning of the 15th Century, the ‘three period view’ of history came up. Historians concluded that there was a transitional period between the Dark and the Modern era. This, they termed as the Middle Ages.

The division of medieval history into Early, High and Late periods became more common after World War I, spearheaded by the writings of Henri Pirenne and Johan Huizinga. 

Early Middle Ages

The beginning of this era started with the decline of the Roman Empire by “barbarian” invasions. The Vandals, Huns, Bulgars, Avars and Magyars and some Germanic and Slavic groups, invaded Roman life and culture. This marked the decline of the Western Roman Empire in the end of the 5th Century.

This was also the time when the Roman supremacy over England declined and led to the rise of great British ruler King Arthur. However, the glory of the Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire continued to flourish, centered around the city of Constantinople.

This was a time of not only socio-political upheavals, but also marked by great cultural changes. In the field of art and culture, Celtic and Germanic forms merged with Christian elements. Despite the incursions, the Church continued to survive as a unifying institution.

Then occurred some landmark events: the rise of the Franks and that of Islam in the East. The Franks or the Merovingians became the first powerful rulers of the West after Rome. In fact, they were seminal in curbing Islamic incursions under their famous ruler Charles Martel.

Then came the illustrious times of Charlemagne. In the 800s, he united France, western Germany and northern Italy under one empire. During his reign and that of his son Louis the Pious, the Frankish-ruled Holy Roman Empire reached new heights of revival.

High Middle Ages

A more stable Western Europe in the year 1000 marked the beginning of this medieval period. The barbarian raids had ended with the only exception of Mongol raids. Christianity gave rise to a new united European civilization. It was a time of economic, cultural and philosophical restoration of Western Europe.

The Hanseatic League and other such commercial institutions were formed at this time, as were the first universities that led to growth in literacy. As the continent united, the leading rulers of the times called upon the Western European people for a collective war against Islam. This led to the Crusades.

Late Middle Ages

This was again a time of great unrest. The Little Ice Age, the Great Famine and the Black Death (the outset of plague that wiped out a huge population) marred it. 

Politically it saw the decline of feudal power and rise of nation-states centered around England, France and the Iberian Peninsula. Despite the nationalized unification conflicts such as the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, the Battle of Manzikert etc. continued. 

In the religious arena, Christendom saw great discord in the Western Schism that lasted from 1378-1418 and the formation of the Roman Catholic Church in 1517 that led to rise of the two schools of Catholicism and Protestantism.

Medieval history was ending and the continent was now all set to take on the Early Modern Period.

US history can be dated back to some 50000 years ago when people migrating from Asia (via the Bering land bridge) settled in the Alaska region. Many cultures thrived in the Americas before the arrival of European explorers in the 1400s. Very little is known about these early settlers or Native Americans.

History has it that Christopher Columbus, sailing on behalf of the Spanish Crown, first ventured in the territory of the United States; however, it took some 20 years for him to reach mainland America. An important event in the timeline of US history – the arrival of the first European in the continental United States – is known to have taken place in 1497, when John Cabot touched the mainland.

Early European Settlements And Colonization Of America (1493-1776)

Following exploration by various European nations, Dutch, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish settlements were established in the Americas. Jamestown (present-day Virginia) established in 1607 was the first English colony in North America. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was set up by the English Puritans in 1620. French and Spanish explorers too established their rules in extended territories. Strife among these powers for control over land continued and accounts from US history tell us that ultimately only the English were left with their Thirteen British Colonies. 

Colonial America saw many conflicts between the Native Americans and the European colonists. Differences in culture and religion together with the British policy of utter negligence (as reflected in displacing the Native Americans westwards to make place for the European settlers) bred resentment among the Native tribes. These led to conflicts like the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia, King Philip’s War in New England and other such clashes.

Declaration Of Independence And Formation Of The United States (1776-1849)

The American War of Independence culminated in the ‘Declaration of Independence’ from British rule by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, whereby the former thirteen British colonies established themselves as the United States of America under the Articles of Confederation. Later, on March 4, 1789, the Articles of Confederation was replaced with the United States Constitution, which made provisions for a representative, elective government with a weak executive.

George Washington, a prominent figure of the American Revolutionary War (Commander and chief of the Continental Army and the president of the Constitutional Convention), became the first President of the United States under the new U.S. Constitution. In the ensuing period of US history, the federal government followed a policy of expansion largely by displacing indigenous population. 

American Civil War

The 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise, allowing individual states to have their own stance on slavery. When Abraham Lincoln was elected the President of the United States in 1861, eleven Southern states pulled out from the Union, establishing a rebel government, the Confederate States of America. Civil War broke out when the Confederate General Pierre Beauregard attacked Fort Sumter. President Lincoln ably guided the Union armed forces and the Civil War ended in the ultimate defeat of the rebel Southern States in 1865.

Following the Civil War, America experienced rapid growth in industrialization and became a major economic force. This glorious period of US history saw America make an entry into the World War I as a key military power.

Great Depression

Industrial progression continued in the post World War I years, but the era was also marked by lowering of prices of farm produces and lowered labor wages. This status quo led to the Stock Market crash in 1929. During the Great Depression years, the federal government undertook economic reform measures (like Roosevelt’s New Deal) to bail out the victims. The United States of America experienced rapid recovery in every sphere excepting unemployment, which continued to plague the nation till the initial years of World War II.

World War II And The Cold War Era

America’s involvement in World War II would have been limited to diplomatic and economic aid had it not been for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. After the attack, US joined Britain, China and the Soviet Union to defeat the combined forces of Fascist Italy, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany.

Post World War II America emerged as one of the two superpowers (the other one being Soviet Union). One prime event in the history of United States – the nation’s entry into the United Nations – took place on December 4, 1945. In the ensuing years, USA found itself locking horns with Soviet Union in what is described as the Cold War. This resulted in a series of conflicts wherein both Soviet Union and United States tried to prove their supremacy in cultural, economic, military, social and technological spheres.

The Cold War reached its climax with the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. At about the same time, the Civil Rights Movement took deep roots in America and it brought institutionalized racism to an end. The period also saw America make immense progress in both Missile and Space Technology.

Modern Era

Following the collapse of the Communist Regime in Soviet Union in 1991, USA became the sole superpower of the World. America continues to play a pivotal role internationally in its capacity as the only superpower of the modern era. The 1991 Gulf War, the Digital Revolution and other such happenings propelled United States to a great height.

Into the new millennium, the nation witnessed one of the most heinous incidents in the US history – the September 11, 2001 attacks on the twin towers of the World Trade Center (and that of The Pentagon) planned by a terrorist outfit, led by Osama Bin Laden. In response, America launched attacks on Afghanistan (where Laden had taken refuge) with support of international community. 

America’s involvement in the Iraq war, which ended in the collapse and ultimate capture of Saddam Hussein in 2003 invited scathing criticism from all quarters of the world. The Bush administration was even condemned by millions of Americans.

History stands witness that except for a few blotches here and there, United States has always upheld human rights.

This is only an abridged presentation. For more details on the glorious US history, go through the individual chapters of US history.    

The topic concerning the causes of the Great Depression, still today is a matter of hot debate. The Great Depression is the enormous economic downturn, which began in 1929 and lasted for a decade. The industrialized Europe and North America were the main victims but the whole world was traumatized by this economic doom.

The hunt for the causes of the Great Depression is related to the thought of dodging any future depression. So politics and policies are fused in the analysis of the historic episode of the Great Depression. This long-term debate is now bifurcated in two directions,
 

• The orthodox classical liberal, monetarist, Keynesian and Neoclassical theory focusing on the macroeconomic effect of money supply and
• The Structural theories of Institutional economics pointing towards under -consumption and over-investment, popularly called the ‘economic bubble’.

The consequences of the Great depression were a long-term chronicle of economic statistics. There is no one cause you could pinpoint, several causes merges in the quest for the roots of the causes of the Great Depression. Some important causes are:

The Stock Market Crash Of 1929

The Wall Street crash in 1929 triggered off the initial depression. The attitude transformed completely winding towards negativism in the fields of investments and enterprising. There was a brief recovery in 1930 but after that steady downfall made it the greatest market decline of the decade.

The Problem Of Debts

There was a rise in consumer debts during the 1920s gearing up consumer spending. People were deeply in debt and when a price deflation occurred they were in serious problem. Income and prices fell by 20-25% but debts remained in the same dollar amount. As the debtors choke the consumer creating pressure on them, the consumer spending fell. In the face of unpromising profit, investment scenario weakened and banks became more conservative in the wake of bad future prospects. Building up of reserves speeded up the depression.

Decline In Trade Stats And Its Effect

Sharp decline in international trade after 1930 worsened the situation. According to some economists the growing economic intervention made the market inept to deal with sudden changes. Britain encouraged trade within the empire and Germany followed Economic Autarky.

Many historians and economists also blame the Smoot Hawley Tariff Act of 1932 for aggravating the depression by trimming down international trade. American exports declined from US $5.2 billion in 1929 to US $1.7 billion in 1933. This theory points on the crumpling of farm exports leading to default on loan payments as the cause of bankruptcy of small banks. This situation had a long-term effect as the cause of the Great Depression.

The Blunder Of Federal Reserve Policy And The Effect  

Monetarist Milton Friedman and Ben Bernanke focus on the negative effect of the Federal Reserve System. The policy contracted money supply by 1/3 from 1930 to 1931. With less money in the economy, the businessmen couldn’t get loans and even faced problems to renew their old loans. At the end of 1930 the economy faced series of bank failures leading to recurrent liquidity crisis.

Capitalism As The Cause Of The Great Depression

The radical left viewed the Great depression as the ensuing end of Capitalism. The belief in the innate instability of free market was in vogue. But free market at time of President Hoover was not exactly free. So, according to scholars if free market is a cause it caused the Great Depression when it was weakest.
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Business As The Cause

Roosevelt and The New Dealers accused excess of large businesses as the root cause of the Great Depression. The New Dealers planned to empower labor unions and poor people and to curb the power of big businesses by raising corporate profit tax. They instituted economic regulations. New dealers busted many large corporate houses thus weakening the economy and perpetuated the Great Depression.

The Paradox Of Thrift

British historian Keynes has coined the term “paradox of thrift” to describe the cause of the Great Depression. This refers to the cut on the spend amount to save more. After the Stock Market Crash in 1929 less spending saturated the market, which is the cause of price deflation leading to the Great Depression. Investment spending lessened and workers were lain off. A dangerous cycle was put into motion. The overall lower expenses reduced income level, which experienced lower savings too during the Great Depression. This is the Paradox of Thrift and the Keynesians requested the Government to restore economy by increasing government spending.

The Historical Causes And Their Consequences

After World War I the war reparations played a vital role in the economy. Though the allies were affected but Germany bore the main burden. This is an immediate cause of the Great Depression in Europe.

The Great Depression is remembered as the biggest depression of world economy and a survey into the probable causes is designated to save the globe from another economic doom. According to some scholars after World War I the decision of Britain to revert to the pre WWI Gold Standard is one of the causes of the Great Depression.

King James (James I) (June 19, 1566 – March 27, 1625) was the first monarch to style himself the King of Great Britain. The only child of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, the Duke of Albany (commonly known as Lord Darnley), James became the King of Scotland on July 29, 1567, when his mother Mary was forced to hand over the throne in his favor. James went on to become the first monarch of England from the House of Stuart, when he succeeded Elizabeth I as the King of England and Ireland on March 24, 1603.

King James was a strong believer of the divine power of kings, which he believed was sanctioned by the apostolic succession. James’ political absolutism was accepted by the docile Scottish Parliament, but it led to bitter conflicts in the English Parliament. Though the governments of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were relatively stable in his reign. James’ dictatorial governance and his mismanagement of the kingdom’s funds is known to have destabilized the royal finances. His unpopularity among the English nobility is seen as one of the prime reasons leading to the English Civil War. 

King James’ rule, however, has more pleasant sides to it than its darker aspects. Culturally, England continued to evolve in this period. Be it in the field of art or literature or science, with contributions from people like William Shakespeare and Sir Francis Bacon, the Elizabethan tradition was continued. James himself was very learned and produced such scholarly works as the Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), Basilikon Doron (1599) and A Counterblaste to Tobacco (1604). In fact, he was acclaimed as ‘the wisest fool in Christendom’.

King James’ religious tolerance (compared to that of his predecessors) also made his reign a success. In spite of being a Protestant, he never attempted to abolish Catholicism. His religious tolerance also allowed for the continuation of Calvinism in Scotland and the growth of Puritanism in England. He also encouraged reformation of the Anglican Church and the growth of ‘High Church’ practices. He also authorized an official translation of the Bible. Known as King James’ Bible, known for the beauty of its language, this version has replaced other translations of the Bible as the standard version.

King James’ artistic genius found expression in the British Flag, which he designed (in 1603) by combining England’s red cross of St. George with Scotland’s white cross of St. Andrew, following the ‘Union of the Crowns’. Quite fittingly, the British Flag is christened the Union Jack – where Jac stands for Jacobus, Latin for James and represents the Union effected by King James.

The Jewish calendar is a religious calendar used by Jews all over the world and is also the official calendar of Israel. This particular calendar commands quite an ancient lineage, dating back to the Sanhedrin president Hillel II, who brought it into being in around C.E. 359.

A Few Facts About The Jewish Calendar

A regular (non-leap) Jewish year with 12 months can have 353, 354 or 355 days, while the Jewish leap year can have 383, 384 or 385 days. These various years are respectively known as “deficient”, “regular” and “complete”.  It is also worth noting here that a Jewish leap year has 13 months.

The Jews use a lunisolar calendar, or a calendar that is a cross between the lunar calendar and the solar one. In this respect, the Jewish calendar is akin to the Chinese calendar. This particular type of calendar has its years corresponding to those in the tropical year and its months concurring with the synodic months. Obviously the architects of the calendar had quite a lot in their minds and it is not hard to imagine that the calendar incorporates rules that are quite intricate.

To elaborate, the 12 months in the Jewish calendar comes to about 11 days short than the typical tropical year. And as a countermeasure, a leap month (also known as an intercalary month) is included after every third year to have the calendar in sync with the seasons. Now this may sound too much of an effort, but the ancient Israelites found ingenious ways to make way around the problem. 

For instance, in the days of yore, the Israeli religious leaders would estimate the approximate date for Passover in spring based on whether the roads were suitably dry for the pilgrims to take on and also whether the lambs were ready to be slaughtered. If they didn’t find the conditions appropriate or the time ripe, they would add a month to the calendar.

But this practice is not surprising, for throughout history there have been sundry people who have looked to nature to give them the requisite signals. Thus there was an aboriginal tribe in Taiwan who went out to the sea at around the time of new moon at the commencement of spring. If they spotted the very elusive migratory flying fish, they knew New Year’s day was nearing.

The Jewish calendar is also known to yield itself to numerous modifications depending upon when the Jews would want their holidays and special ceremonies to be held. Thus for instance, they would holdup their New Year by a day if it falls on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday during the normal course. This is done to ensure that Yom Kippur doesn’t occur on a Friday or Sunday and Hoshanah Rabba, on a Shabbat (Saturday).

For the westerners accustomed to the rules of the Gregorian calendar, the following tidbits about the Jewish calendar would seem fascinating:

• A conventional Jewish day begins either at sunset or the very time when three mid-sized stars are visible in the horizon, instead of midnight.

• Depending on the particular season, the duration of the night might be different from the day. This is because sunset is taken to herald the commencement of the 12 night hours and sunrise, the start of the 12 day hours.

An understanding of the influences that shaped the calendar, be it the Jewish calendar or the Hebrew calendar, will in turn help you appreciate man’s efforts to bring time within its shackles.

Ancient art includes the diverse forms of arts developed primarily in the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, Rome, India and China. Each civilization had its particular style and has influenced later arts of different cultures. They also give us an insight into how ancient artists worked.

As history reveals, The Jomon’s of ancient Japan first founded pottery as an art form. Ancient art of the Arabs and Persians were a combination of paintings and writings with architecture. In Mesopotamia, the mother of all civilizations, writing and agriculture were discovered. They also enriched the later civilizations with their arts. Sumerians embellished their pottery with paintings and created beautiful jewelry. One of the most fascinating artifacts from that period is a wooden box decorated with lapis lazuli.

As history suggests, Babylonians were said to have discovered the making of bricks which developed into architectural splendors like columns and pillars. Frescoes, tiles and walls were all beautiful and colorful. They also created fantastic artifacts in metal, gems and embroidery. The later Assyrians used stone slabs and sculptures for architecture. Also jewelry making with copper and gold attained perfection.

One of the most artistically rich civilizations is that of Egypt. This civilization was based on religion. Their gods and pharaohs were worshipped devotedly and were depicted widely in their arts. In ancient Egyptian art a sense of proportion and balance was maintained by using orderly lines and shapes. Hierarchy was of vital importance in ancient Egyptian art and the pharaoh was the most important personage and was painted larger than any of the others.

Gods, goddesses and animals as symbolic elements were widely used in ancient Egyptian art. Color was also an important aspect in the arts. Their art reflects a profound knowledge of human and animal anatomy. This ancient art survived through many centuries due to the dry climate of Egypt.

Like Egypt, Greece was the hotbed of civilization. In the ancient art of Greece, pottery sculptures and architecture was prevalent. Greek art is distributed among three periods- Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. The history of Greek pottery also includes periods like Protogeometric, Geometric, Archaic, Black Figure and Red Figure. The architecture and sculptures of ancient Greece have lasted through the ages.

Ancient Greek paintings have unfortunately not survived long. You can find only a few examples of Greek paintings on terracotta and on tombs and walls. The paintings on pottery are aesthetically pleasing and have survived longer than on any other medium.

Ancient Roman art was inspired by Greek and Etruscan arts. When the villas of Romans were excavated in Pompeii, strong affinity for Greek art was found to be present. Most Greek art survives through their copies by the Romans. The difference lies in the fact that Greeks depicted insights into human life whereas Romans glorified great events and personages through their art.

Apart from these civilizations, ancient art of Minoa during the Bronze Age is famous for its ceramics, frescos, landscape paintings and stone carvings. The ancient Mycenaean specialized in working with gold. Scythian art consisting of gold jewelry are found from Hungary to Mongolia. Their art is small, characterizing their migratory lifestyle. Also ancient Chinese art has significantly influenced all arts of the Far East.

From every conceivable medium like pottery, stone, glass, metal to textiles and categories such as architecture, paintings, jewelry and weapons, ancient art spans all ages and various cultures and civilizations.

To get a complete and comparative picture of world history, it is very important to study regional history as well. Regional history is a method where you learn about the history of various countries during the same time span and then compare the common aspects. 

Historians also lay stress on the fact that historical developments cannot be studied in isolation. It is very important to study history countrywise and at the same time analyze them globally. Many historians focus on the patterns of political leadership and the rise and fall of empires in various countries while exploring regional history.

The empires that flourished around the Mediterranean, the Ganges and the Yellow River by the last centuries BCE are vital chapters of regional history.

The Ganges valley in India saw the rise of the illustrious Mauryan Empire. The Pandyas ruled southern India simultaneously. At the same time, The Qin and Han dynasties were the imperial rulers of China and brought about political stability and communication development in their country. Emporer Wu also created monopoly states in China.

Moving to the western world, the Ancient Greeks were then busy building a culture that would change modern western civilization forever.

Around the 3rd century BCE, the Roman Empire began to rise by territorial invasions and colonization. By the end of the 1st century, Roman Emperor Augustus was the undisputed monarch of the Mediterranean.

Egypt rose to prominence with the consolidation of Nile Valley politics around 3500 BC and is said to have come to decline in 30 BC when the early Roman Empire invaded and took over Ptolemaic Egypt.

The great empires rose to glory based on their military might and the world saw times of agricultural prosperity, political stability and international trade. These regional civilizations also shared common problems like the cost of maintaining huge military reserves and a centralized bureaucracy. The peasants had to suffer for these expenses while the corrupt landowners fleeced them and cleverly evaded taxes.

If the rise of the mighty empires formed a significant chapter of regional history, the picture remains incomplete without an analysis of their fall. Barbarian incursions were the reason for the civil unrest in the Han Empire in 220 CE. Their Roman counterpart also lost the centralized stability due to the same reason. At the same time Eurasia, America and North Africa saw the rise and fall of various empires.
The disintegration of the Roman Empire brought great instability in Europe. However, the spread of Christianity westward from the Middle East brought some unity. The Western Roman Empire was taken over by various Germanic tribes in the 5th century who however owed collective allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.

The eastern region of the Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire continued under a centralized leadership. Western Europe again saw some stability under the Holy Roman Empire.

Similarly, dynasties came and went in China — The Sui Dynasty Tang Dynasty, Northern Song Dynasty and the Mongol Empire, to name some. India saw the rise and fall of the Guptas and the Dravidian empires like the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas etc.

In Central America, the Maya and the Aztecs in Mesoamerica were some of the most prominent native empires. In South America, the Incas dominated for a long time.  The rise of Islam in the 7th century also led to the growth of religious empires in India, the Middle East and North Africa.

All these civilizations are vital to the study of history. Hence, regional history is an essential part of any history curriculum.